Utforska ämnet Arkeologiska utgrävningar på 1920-talet utgrävde ruinerna av två storstäder, Harappa och Mohenjo-daro, som intygade de indiska civilisternas gamla rötter. Båda områdena, nu en del av Pakistan, är bland de främsta urbana bosättningarna i Indus Valley Civilization som utvecklades längs Indusflodens floder och dess bifloder och blomstrade mellan 3000 och 1900 f. Kr. Floddalarnas bördighet, förstärkt av monsunregnen, gjorde odling och herding av en civilisation av civilisationsekonomin, som också kompletterades med intern och extern handel. Bland de viktigaste egenskaperna hos Indus civilisationsställen, som nu har hittats över en stor del av Pakistan och nordvästra Indien, är deras likformighet. Städerna konstruerades med standardiserade tegelstenar och har en rätlinjig gatplan, granaries, dränerings - och avloppssystem och flerhöjdshem. Civilisationen utvecklade också ett enhetligt system av vikter och åtgärder samt en form av skrivning, som ännu inte har avkodats. I antal och omfattning var Indus civilisation den största av civilisationerna i antiken. Även om orsakerna till Indus civilisationsnedgång inte är helt kända, tyder det på att geologiska bevis tyder på att klimatförändringen kan ha varit en faktor. Video: Harappas ruiner intygar den gamla civilisationen av Indus-dalen Harappa var en gammal stadsbyggnad av bronsåldern, belägen nära Ravi-flodens tidigare kurs, i nordöstra Pakistan, upptäckt på 1920-talet. Harappa och Mohenjo-daro, en liknande planerad stad som ligger längre söderut, nära Indusälvens strand, anses vara en del av samma stora civilisation, Indus Valley Civilization, som blomstrade från 2600 till 1900 f. Kr. Rester av Harappas citadelmur, gjord av lera tegelstenar, är fortfarande synliga, trots att många av dess tegel plundrades under byggandet av en järnväg på 1800-talet. Arkeologiska utgrävningar visar att stadens granaries låg norr om citadellet, medan en kyrkogård låg i söder. Liksom de andra städerna i Indus Valley Civilization, var gatorna utlagda i ett rutnätliknande mönster, som körde antingen norr till syd eller öst till väst. Bostadsbyggnaderna med takvåningshus, i ett eller två historier, innehöll inomhusvattenverk som kopplades till ett mycket utvecklat system för avlopp och avfallsavverkning. Målat keramik, brons - och kopparverktyg, terrakottafigurer och många inskriven stämplade sälar, dekorerad med djurmotiv, är bland de artefakter som har blivit uppgjutna på Harappa och Mohenjo-daro. Även med dessa funderingar är städernas härskare identiska kvar i tvivel. Cykling i monsunregnar Indias klimat påverkas särskilt av monsuner, starka vindar som ändrar riktningen med årstiderna på grund av skillnader i mark - och havstemperatur och kan utlösa dramatiska förändringar i vädret. Avled från arabiska till årstid (mausim) blåser monsoons i Indien från havet mot land i sydvästriktning från juni till september. Från oktober till december blåser vindar över land mot havet från nordostrikt, svepande från Himalaya till Indiska oceanen. Regnarna under sommaren eller den våta monsonen kommer ner när luft som har absorberat värme från den indiska landmassan stiger och ersätts av kallare luft från över Indiska oceanen. Eftersom temperaturen under Indias sommar kan nå över 100 grader Fahrenheit, ger den våta monsunen all nödvändig lättnad. Landets jordbruksindustri och ekonomi är beroende av sommarmonronen, som levererar så mycket som 80 av Indiens nederbörd. Men tunga monsun årstider, som kan få många meter regn under några månader, har lett till jordskred och har förstört grödor och byar. Omvänt kan monsunfel orsaka år av torka, och forskare teoretiserar att en försvagad monsun kan ha bidragit till nedgången i Indus Valley Civilization. Klimatförändring Video: Klimatförändringar kan ha varit en av anledningarna till nedgången av Indus Valley Civilization Under 1800-talet upptäckte arkeologerna spår av den tidigaste civilisationen i Indien, en som utvecklades i den frodiga Indus River Valley mellan 3000 och 1900 f. Kr. . Större än antingen den egyptiska eller den mesopotamiska civilisationen under samma period, uppskattas befolkningen i Indus Valley (eller Harappan) Civilisation någonstans mellan två och fem miljoner människor. Bland civilisationerna 2000 var stora bosättningar de planerade städerna Harappa och Mohenjo-daro, handels - och hantverksproduktionscenter där hantverkare och byar smidesverk och invecklade pärlor av guld, koppar och elfenben. Arkeologiska bevis visar att efter 700 års stabilitet sjönk civilisationen. De flesta av Indus bosättningar hade övergivits eller krympt i storlek ca 1800 f. Kr. Många faktorer bidrog till slutet av Indus civilisation, men klimatförändringen framträder som en primär anledning till dess gradvisa nedläggning. Geologiska bevis visar att klimatregionerna växte kallare och torrare, delvis på grund av en försvagad monsun. Vid 1800 f. Kr., Ghaggar-Hakra River, en flod i regionen som parallella Indus-systemet och som vissa forskare föreslår är Saraswati, den förlorade heliga floden av Rig Veda. var kraftigt minskad. Som ett resultat överfördes städerna och även om en del av befolkningen var kvar, migrerade många till mer bördiga länder i öster runt Ganges och Jumna. Diskussionsfrågor Vad har arkeologer hittat i Harappa och Mohenjo-Daro som indikerar att städerna var en del av en avancerad civilisation Medan monsunvindarna är en viktig del av indisk handel och jordbrukshistoria, vilka problem kan de orsaka i antiken, kan klimatförändringarna har orsakat Indus Valley städer att ha övergivits. Vilka förändringar till civilisationer och städer som kan leda till moderna klimatförändringar. Berättelsen av Indien är möjlig genom bidrag från tittare som dig själv och även av Pataks indiska livsmedel. Startad av indisk entreprenör L. G. Patak, Pataks distribuerar indiska livsmedelsprodukter i USA och runt om i världen. Ta reda på mer om hur du kan njuta av smakerna i Indien genom att besöka oss online på pataksusaIndus Valley Civilization Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) var en bronsålderkultur (3300-1300 f. Kr. mogen period 2600-1900 f. Kr.) som sträcker sig från det som idag är nordöstra Afghanistan till Pakistan och nordvästra Indien. Tillsammans med Forntida Egypten och Mesopotamien var det en av tre tidiga civilisationer av den gamla världen, och av de tre mest utbredda blomstrade den i Indusflodens bassänger, en av Asiens största floder och Ghaggar-Hakra-floden, som en gång korsade genom nordvästra Indien och östra Pakistan. Vid toppen kan Indus Civilization ha haft en befolkning på över fem miljoner. Invånarna i den gamla Indus älvdalen utvecklade nya tekniker inom hantverk (karnelianska produkter, tätningsskärning) och metallurgi (koppar, brons, bly och tenn). Indus städerna noteras för sin stadsplanering, bakade tegelhus, utarbetade avloppssystem, vattenförsörjningssystem och kluster av stora icke-bostadsbyggnader. Indus Valley Civilization är också känd som Harappan Civilization, efter Harappa, den första av sina platser att utgrävas på 1920-talet, i vad som då var Punjabprovinsen i British India, och nu är Pakistan. Upptäckten av Harappa och kort därefter, Mohenjo-Daro, var kulminationen av arbetet som började 1861 med grundandet av den arkeologiska undersökningen av Indien i den brittiska Raj. Excavation av Harappan-sidor har pågått sedan 1920, med viktiga genombrott som förekommer som nyligen som 1999. Det fanns tidigare och senare kulturer, ofta kallade Early Harappan och Late Harappan, i samma område av Harappan Civilization. Harappans civilisation kallas ibland den mogna Harappan-kulturen för att skilja den från dessa kulturer. Fram till 1999 hade över 1,056 städer och bosättningar hittats, varav 96 har utgrävts, främst i den allmänna regionen Indus och Ghaggar-Hakra floder och deras bifloder. Bland bosättningarna var de stora städerna Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO: s världsarvslista), Dholavira, Ganeriwala i Cholistan och Rakhigarhi. Harappan-språket är inte direkt bevisat och dess anslutning är osäker eftersom Indus-skriptet fortfarande är odefinierat. Ett förhållande med dravidian eller Elamo-Dravidian språkfamiljen gynnas av en sektion av forskare. Kronologi Den mogna fasen av Harappans civilisation varade från c. 2600-1900 f. Kr. Med införandet av föregångare och efterföljande kulturer - respektive Harappan och Sena Harappan - kan hela Indusdalen Civilisation tas ut från 33-talet till 1400-talet f. Kr. Två termer används för periodiseringen av IVC: Faser och Eras. Den tidiga Harappan, mogna Harappan och sena Harappan faserna kallas också regionaliseringen, integrationen och lokaliseringen eras, med regionaliseringsera som når tillbaka till Neolithic Mehrgarh II-perioden. Upptäckter på Mehrgarh förändrade hela konceptet Indus civilisation, enligt Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus vid Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad. Där har vi hela sekvensen, precis från början av bosatt byliv. Indusdalen Civilisation omfattade det mesta av Pakistan och delar av nordvästra Indien, Afghanistan och Iran, som sträcker sig från Balokistan i väst till Uttar Pradesh i öst, nordöstra Afghanistan i norr och Maharashtra i söder. Indus-dalens geografi ställde civilisationerna som uppstod där i en mycket liknande situation till dem i Egypten och Peru, med rika jordbruksmarker omgivna av högländerna, öknen och havet. Nyligen har Indus-platser upptäckts i Pakistans nordvästra gränsprovinsen. Andra IVC-kolonier finns i Afghanistan medan mindre isolerade kolonier finns så långt bort som Turkmenistan och i Gujarat. Kustuppgörelser utvidgades från Sutkagan Dor i västra Baluchistan till Lothal i Gujarat. En Indus Valley-plats har hittats på Oxus-floden vid Shortughai i norra Afghanistan, i Gomalflodalen i nordvästra Pakistan, vid Manda, Jammu på floden Beas i närheten av Jammu, Indien och vid Alamgirpur på Hindon-floden, ligger endast 28 km från Delhi. Indus Valley-platser har hittats oftast på floder, men också på den gamla kusten, till exempel Balakot och på öar, till exempel Dholavira. Det finns bevis på torra flodbäddar som överlappar Hakrakanalen i Pakistan och den säsongsbetonade Ghaggarfloden i Indien. Många Indus Valley (eller Harappan) platser har upptäckts längs Ghaggar-Hakra sängar. Bland dem är: Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan och Ganwariwala. Enligt J. G. Shaffer och D. A. Lichtenstein är Harappan Civilization en fusion av Bagor, Hakra och Koti Dij-traditioner eller etniska grupper i Ghaggar-Hakra-dalen vid gränserna till Indien och Pakistan. Enligt några arkeologer har mer än 500 Harappan-platser upptäckts längs de torkade flodbäddarna i Ghaggar-Hakra-floden och dess bifloder, i motsats till endast omkring 100 längs Indus och dess bifloder, enligt deras uppfattning, beteckningen Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilisation eller Indus-Saraswati civilisationen är motiverad. Men dessa politiskt inspirerade argument ifrågasätts av andra arkeologer som säger att Ghaggar-Hakra öknen har lämnats orörda av bosättningar och jordbruk sedan Indusperiodens slut och därmed visar fler platser än hittades i Indusdalen andra , att antalet Harappan-platser längs Ghaggar-Hakraflodbäddarna har överdrivits och att Ghaggar-Hakra, när det existerade, var en individs biflod, så är den nya nomenklaturen överflödig. Harappan Civilization är fortfarande den rätta, enligt den gemensamma arkeologiska användningen av namngivning av en civilisation efter dess första fynd. Uppkomsten av civilisationen Den tidiga Harappan Ravi-fasen, uppkallad efter den närliggande Ravi-floden, varade från ca 3300 f. Kr. fram till 2800 f. Kr. Den är relaterad till Hakra-fasen, identifierad i Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley i väster, och föregår Kot Diji-fasen (2800-2600 f. Kr., Harappan 2), uppkallad efter en plats i norra Sindh, Pakistan, nära Mohenjo Daro. De tidigaste exemplen på Indus-skriptet är från cirka 3000 fvt. Den mogna fasen av tidigare bykulturer representeras av Rehman Dheri och Amri i Pakistan. Kot Diji (Harappan 2) representerar den fas som leder fram till Mogna Harappan, med citadelen som representerar centraliserad myndighet och en alltmer livskvalitet. En annan stad i denna fas hittades vid Kalibangan i Indien på Hakra-floden. Handelsnät kopplade denna kultur till relaterade regionala kulturer och avlägsna källor till råmaterial, inklusive lapis lazuli och andra material för pärltillverkning. Byborna hade vid denna tid tämjt många grödor, inklusive ärtor, sesamfrön, datum och bomull, liksom djur, inklusive vattenbuffel. Tidiga Harappan-samhällen vände sig till stora stadscentrum vid 2600 f. Kr., varifrån den mogna Harappanfasen startade. Vid 2600 fvt hade de tidiga Harappan-samhällena blivit till stora stadscentrum. Sådana stadscentrum är Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-Daro i dagens Pakistan och Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar och Lothal i moderna Indien. Totalt har mer än 1 052 städer och bosättningar hittats, främst i Indusälarnas allmänna område och deras bifloder. En sofistikerad och tekniskt avancerad urbana kultur är uppenbar i Indusdalen civilisationen. Kvaliteten på den kommunala stadsplaneringen föreslår kunskap om stadsplanering och effektiva kommuner som har hög prioritet på hygienområdet. Gatorna i större städer som Mohenjo-daro eller Harappa lades ut i ett perfekt gallermönster, jämförbart med dagens New York. Husen skyddades mot ljud, lukt och tjuvar. Såsom ses i Harappa, Mohenjo-daro och den nyligen upptäckta Rakhigarhi, inkluderade denna stadsplan världens första urbana sanitetssystem. Inom staden uppnådde enskilda hem eller grupper av bostäder vatten från brunnar. Från ett rum som tycks ha ställts åt sidan för badning, riktade avloppsvatten till täckta avlopp, som kantade de stora gatorna. Hus öppnade endast för innergårdar och mindre körfält. De gamla Indus systemen för avlopp och avlopp som utvecklats och använts i städer i hela Indus-riket var långt mer avancerade än vad som hittades i moderna städer i Mellanöstern och ännu effektivare än de i vissa områden i moderna Pakistan och Indien idag. Harappans avancerade arkitektur visas av sina imponerande dockyards, granaries, lager, tegelplattformar och skyddsväggar. De massiva citadellerna i Indus städer som skyddade Harappans från översvämningar och angripare var större än de flesta mesopotamiska zigguraterna. Syftet med citadellet är fortsatt debatterat. I skarp kontrast till dessa civilisationer samtidiga, Mesopotamien och forntida Egypten byggdes inga stora monumentala strukturer. Det finns inget avgörande bevis på palats eller templesor, faktiskt av kungar, arméer eller präster. Vissa strukturer anses ha varit granaries. Finns i en stad är ett enormt välbyggt bad, som kanske har varit ett offentligt bad. Även om citadellerna är murade, är det långt ifrån klart att dessa strukturer var defensiva. De kan ha byggts för att avleda översvämningsvatten. De flesta stadsbyggare verkar ha varit handlare eller hantverkare, som bodde med andra som utför samma yrke i väldefinierade stadsdelar. Material från avlägsna regioner användes i städerna för att bygga tätningar, pärlor och andra föremål. Bland de föremål som gjordes var vackra pärlor av glaserad sten som kallades fasad. Tätningarna har bilder av djur, gudar etc. och inskriptioner. Några av sälarna användes för att stämpla ler på handelsvaror, men de hade antagligen andra användningsområden. Trots att vissa hus var större än andra var Indus civilisationsstäder anmärkningsvärda för sin uppenbara likalitarism. Till exempel hade alla hus tillgång till vatten - och dräneringsanläggningar. Man får intrycket av ett stort medelklasssamhälle. Harrappas ruiner beskrevs först 1842 av Charles Masson i hans berättelse om olika resor i Balochistan, Afghanistan och Punjab, där lokalbefolkningen pratade om en gammal stad som förlängde tretton kossar (ca 25 mil) men inget arkeologiskt intresse skulle fästa vid detta för nästan ett sekel. År 1856 besökte general Alexander Cunningham, senare generaldirektör för den arkeologiska undersökningen i norra Indien, Harappa där de brittiska ingenjörerna John och William Brunton låg på linjen East East Railway Company, som förbinder städerna Karachi och Lahore. John skrev: Jag var mycket utövad i mitt sinne hur vi skulle få ballast för järnvägslinjen. De fick höra om en gammal förstörd stad nära linjerna, kallade Brahminabad. Han besökte staden och tyckte att den var full av hårda brännbara brickor, och övertygad om att det fanns en stor stenbrott för ballasten jag ville ha, staden Brahminabad reducerades till ballast. Några månader senare, längre norrut, sprang Johns bror William Bruntons del av linjen nära en annan förstörd stad, tegelstenar som redan hade använts av byborna i den närliggande byn Harappa på samma plats. Dessa tegelstenar gav nu ballast längs 150 km av järnvägsspåret som sträcker sig från Karachi till Lahore. År 187275 publicerade Alexander Cunningham den första Harappan-tätningen (med felaktig identifiering som Brahmi-bokstäver). Det var ett halvt sekel senare, år 1912, att fler Harappan sälar upptäcktes av J. Fleet, vilket ledde till en utgrävningskampanj under Sir John Hubert Marshall 1921-22 och resulterade i upptäckten av civilisationen vid Harappa av Sir John Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni och Madho Sarup Vats, och vid Mohenjo-daro av Rakhal Das Banerjee, EJH MacKay och Sir John Marshall. Vid 1931 hade mycket av Mohenjo-Daro utgrävts, men utgrävningar fortsatte, som leddes av Sir Mortimer Wheeler, chef för den arkeologiska undersökningen av Indien år 1944. Bland andra arkeologer som arbetade på IVC-platser före delning av subkontinenten i 1947 var Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar och Sir Marc Aurel Stein. Efter delningen av Indien arvdes huvuddelen av de arkeologiska fynden av Pakistan där de flesta av IVC baserades, och utgrävningar från den här tiden inkluderar de som leddes av Sir Mortimer Wheeler 1949, arkeologisk rådgivare till Pakistans regering. Outposts of Indus Valley civilisation utgrävdes så långt västerut som Sutkagan Dor i Baluchistan, så långt norrut som vid Shortugai på Amu Darya (floderna gamla namnet Oxus) i nuvarande Afghanistan, så långt öster som vid Alamgirpur, Uttar Pradesh, Indien och så långt söderut som i Malwan, Surat Dist. Indien. Den 11 juli slog tunga översvämningar på Haryana i Indien och skadade den arkeologiska platsen Jognakhera, där gammal kopparsmältning hittades och dateras nästan 5000 år. Indus Valley Civilization-platsen drabbades av nästan 10 meter vatten när Sutlej Yamuna-länkkanalen överflödde. Mohenjo Daro Mohenjo Daro - Mound of the Dead - är en arkeologisk plats i provinsen Sindh, Pakistan. Byggd omkring 2600 f. Kr., det var en av de största bosättningarna av den antika Indus Valley Civilization, och en av världens tidigaste stora stadsbyggnader, samtidigt med civilisationerna i antika Egypten, Mesopotamien och Kreta. Mohenjo-daro övergavs i 1900-talet f. Kr. och återupptäcktes inte förrän 1922. Betydande utgrävning har sedan dess genomförts på stadens plats, som utsetts till en världsarvslista för världsarvslista 1980. Dock är webbplatsen hotad för närvarande av erosion och felaktig restaurering. Den 4 500 år gamla staden Mohenjo Daro är smulande Smithsonian - 18 oktober 2013 Mohenjo Daro var troligen den gången den största staden i världen. För ungefär 4500 år sedan bodde så många som 35 000 människor och arbetade i den massiva staden, som upptar 250 hektar längs Pakistans Indus flod. Mohenjo Daro satt under jorden för tusentals år, en bevarad relikvie av den antika Indus Valley civilisationen. Men utgrävningen utsatte staden för elementen, och nu säger telegrafen, kan ruinerna ha så lite som 20 år kvar. Regeringens arkeologiska register ger inga omedelbara svar för ett maktcentrum eller för skildringar av människor i makten i Harappans samhälle. Men det finns indikationer på att komplexa beslut tas och genomförs. Till exempel, den extraordinära likformigheten av Harappan artefakter som framgår av keramik, tätningar, vikter och tegelstenar. Det här är de stora teorierna: Det fanns ett enda tillstånd, med tanke på likheten i artefakter, bevis för planerade bosättningar, det standardiserade förhållandet mellan tegelstorlek och etablering av bosättningar nära råmaterialkällor. Det fanns ingen enda härskare men flera: Mohenjo-daro hade en separat hersker, Harappa en annan, och så vidare. Harappans samhälle hade inga härskare, och alla hade lika status. Vetenskap och teknik Indus Civilisationens folk uppnådde stor noggrannhet vid mätning av längd, massa och tid. De var bland de första som utvecklade ett system med enhetliga vikter och åtgärder. En jämförelse av tillgängliga objekt indikerar storskalig variation över Indus-territorierna. Deras minsta delning, som är märkt på en elfenbenskala som finns i Lothal, var ungefär 1.704 mm, den minsta divisionen som någonsin registrerats på en skala från bronsåldern. Harappaningenjörerna följde den decimala mätfördelningen för alla praktiska ändamål, däribland mätningen av massa som avslöjas av deras hexahedronvikter. Dessa tjockvikter var i ett förhållande av 5: 2: 1 med vikter av 0,05, 0,1, 0,2, 0,5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 och 500 enheter, varvid varje enhet väger ungefär 28 gram, som liknar den engelska imperialen eller grekiska unciaen, och mindre föremål vägdes i liknande förhållanden med enheterna 0,871. Men som i andra kulturer var faktiska vikter inte enhetliga i hela området. De vikter och åtgärder som senare användes i Kautilyas Arthashastra (4: e århundradet f. Kr.) är desamma som de som används i Lothal. Harappans utvecklade några nya tekniker inom metallurgi och producerade koppar, brons, bly och tenn. Harappans tekniska kompetens var anmärkningsvärd, särskilt i byggnadsdockor. År 2001 gjorde arkeologer som studerade resterna av två män från Mehrgarh, Pakistan, upptäckten att indusdals civilisationens folk, från de tidiga Harappan-perioderna, hade kunskaper om proto-dentistry. Senare i april 2006 meddelades det i den vetenskapliga tidskriften Nature att det äldsta (och första tidiga neolitiska) beviset för borrning av mänskliga tänder in vivo (det vill säga hos en levande person) hittades i Mehrgarh. Elva borrade molarkronor från nio vuxna upptäcktes i ett neolithiskt kyrkogård i Mehrgarh som dateras från 7.500-9.000 år sedan. Enligt författarna pekar deras upptäckter på en tradition av proto-dentistry i de tidiga odlingskulturerna i regionen. En pennstensbärande guldsträcka hittades i Banawali, som förmodligen användes för att testa renheten av guld (en sådan teknik används fortfarande i vissa delar av Indien). Handel och transport Den indus civilisationsekonomin verkar ha beror avsevärt på handel, vilket underlättades av stora framsteg inom transporttekniken. IVC kan ha varit den första civilisationen att använda hjultransport. Dessa framsteg kan ha inkluderat bullockvagnar som är identiska med de som ses i hela Sydasien idag, såväl som båtar. De flesta av dessa båtar var förmodligen små, plattbåtade båtar, kanske drivna av segel, liknande dem som man kan se på Indusfloden idag men det finns sekundära bevis på fartyg. Arkeologer har upptäckt en massiv, muddrad kanal och vad de betraktar som en dockningsanläggning vid kuststaden Lothal i västra Indien (Gujarat-staten). Ett omfattande kanalnät som används för bevattning har dock också upptäckts av H.-P. Frankfurt. Under 43003200 f. Kr. av chalkolithic perioden (kopparåldern) visar Indus Valley Civilization området keramiska likheter med södra Turkmenistan och norra Iran vilket föreslår stor rörlighet och handel. Under Early Harappan-perioden (cirka 32002600 f. Kr.), likheter i keramik, tätningar, figurer, smycken mm dokumenterar intensiv husvagnshandel med Centralasien och den iranska platåen. Att döma av spridningen av Indus civilisationsartefakter, integrerade handelsnäten ekonomiskt ett stort område, inklusive delar av Afghanistan, Persien, kustnära regioner i Indien och Mesopotamien. Det finns några bevis för att handelskontakter utvidgades till Kreta och eventuellt till Egypten. Det fanns ett omfattande maritima handelsnätverk som verkar mellan Harappan och Mesopotamiska civilisationer redan i mitten av Harappan-fasen, där mycket handel hanteras av mellanhandshandlare från Dilmun (moderna Bahrain och Failaka i Persiska viken). Sådan långdistanshavshandel blev genomförbar med den innovativa utvecklingen av plankbyggd vattenfartyg, utrustad med en enda centralmast som stödde en segel av vävda rusar eller tyg. Flera kustuppgörelser som Sotkagen-dor (Astride Dasht River, norr om Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi River, norr om Pasni) och Balakot (nära Sonmiani) i Pakistan tillsammans med Lothal i Indien vittnar om deras roll som Harappan-handelsposter . Grunt hamnar belägna vid flodmynningar i vattendrag som öppnar in i havet möjliggjorde snabb sjöhandel med Mesopotamiska städer. Jordbruk Naturen hos Indus civilisationer jordbrukssystemet är fortfarande i stor utsträckning en fråga om förmodning på grund av den begränsade informationen som överlevde genom åren. Några spekulationer är dock möjliga. Tidigare studier (före 1980) antog ofta att livsmedelsproduktionen importerades till Indus-dalen av en enda språkgrupp (ariser) och från ett enda område. Men nya studier tyder på att livsmedelsproduktionen till stor del var ursprunglig för Indus-dalen. Redan använde Mehrgarh-folket tamatvete och korn och den viktigaste odlade spannmålsgröden var naken sex-rad korn, en gröda härrörande från två rad bygg. Arkeologen Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245) skriver att Mehrgarh-webbplatsen visar att livsmedelsproduktion var ett inhemskt sydasiatiskt fenomen och att datastödstolkningen av den förhistoriska urbaniseringen och den komplexa sociala organisationen i Sydasien baseras på inhemsk men inte isolerad , kulturell utveckling. Indus civilisationslandskap måste ha varit mycket produktivt trots allt, det kunde generera överskott som var tillräckliga för att stödja tiotusentals stadsbor som inte huvudsakligen ägde sig åt jordbruket. Den åberopade de betydande tekniska resultaten av pre-Harappan-kulturen, inklusive plogen. Fortfarande är mycket lite känt om bönderna som stödde städerna eller deras jordbruksmetoder. Några av dem utnyttjade utan tvivel den fertila alluvialjorden som lämnades av floder efter översvämningsperioden, men denna enkla metod för jordbruk anses inte vara produktiv nog för att stödja städer. Det finns inga tecken på bevattning, men sådana bevis kunde ha blivit utplånade av upprepade katastrofala översvämningar. Indus civilisation verkar motsäga den hydrauliska despotismshypotesen om ursprunget för urban civilisation och staten. Enligt denna hypotes kan städer inte ha uppstått utan bevattningssystem som kan ge massiva jordbruksöverskott. För att bygga dessa system framkom ett despotiskt centraliserat tillstånd som kunde undertrycka tusentals människor sociala status och utnyttja deras arbete som slavar. Det är mycket svårt att kvadrera denna hypotes med vad som är känt om Indus civilisation. Det finns inga tecken på kungar, slavar eller tvungen mobilisering av arbetskraft. Det antas ofta att intensiv jordbruksproduktion kräver dammar och kanaler. Detta antagande kan lätt motbevisas. I hela Asien producerar risbönder betydande jordbruksöverskott från terrasserade bergspaneler, som inte resulterar i slaveri utan snarare det ackumulerade arbetet hos många generationer människor. I stället för att bygga kanaler kan Indus civilisation ha byggt upp vattenavledningsplaner, som - som terrängbruk - kan utvecklas av generationer av småskaliga arbetskraftsinvesteringar. Dessutom är det känt att Indus civilisation folk praktiserat regn skörd, en kraftfull teknik som väcktes tillverkade av den klassiska indiska civilisationen men nästan bortglömd i 20-talet. Man bör komma ihåg att Indus civilisation, som alla människor i södra Asien, byggt sina liv runt monsunen, ett vädermönster där huvuddelen av ett årsfall inträffar under en fyra månadersperiod. I en nyligen upptäckt Indus civilisationsstad i västra Indien upptäckte arkeologerna en rad massiva reservoar, huggade av fast sten och avsedda för att samla nederbörd, som skulle ha kunnat möta stadens behov under torrsäsongen. Några studier efter 1980 visar att livsmedelsproduktionen i stor utsträckning var ursprunglig för Indusdalen. Det är känt att Mehrgarhs folk använde tamatvete och korn, 53 och den viktigaste odlade spannmålsgröden var naken sex rad bygg, en gröda härrörande från två rad bygg (se Shaffer och Liechtenstein 1995, 1999). Arkeologen Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245) skriver att Mehrgarh-webbplatsen visar att livsmedelsproduktion var ett inhemskt sydasiatiskt fenomen och att datastödstolkningen av den förhistoriska urbaniseringen och den komplexa sociala organisationen i Sydasien baseras på inhemsk men inte isolerad , kulturell utveckling. Andra, som Dorian Fuller, indikerar dock att det tog ungefär 2000 år innan Mellanöstern-vete acklimatiserades till sydasiatiska förhållanden. Indus Script Det har länge hävdats att Indus-dalen var hem för en litterär civilisation, men det har nyligen utmanats på språkliga och arkeologiska grunder. Över 400 Indus symboler har hittats på sälar eller keramiska krukor och över ett dussin andra material, inklusive en skylt som tydligen en gång hängde över porten av Indus stad i Dholavira. Typiska Indus-inskriptioner är inte längre än fyra eller fem tecken, varav de flesta (bortsett från Dholavira-skylten) är utsökt små längst på en enda yta, som är mindre än 1 tum (2,54 cm), är 17 tecken långa the longest on any object (found on three different faces of a mass-produced object) carries only 26 symbols. It has been recently pointed out that the brevity of the inscriptions is unparalleled in any known premodern literate society, including those that wrote extensively on leaves, bark, wood, cloth, wax, animal skins, and other perishable materials. Based partly on this evidence, a controversial recent paper by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004), argues that the Indus system did not encode language, but was related instead to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems used extensively in the Near East. It has also been claimed on occasion that the symbols were exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were mass produced in molds. No parallels to these mass-produced inscriptions are known in any other early ancient civilizations. Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions (1987, 1991), edited by A. Parpola and his colleagues. Publication of a final third volume, which will reportedly republish photos taken in the 20s and 30s of hundreds of lost or stolen inscriptions, along with many discovered in the last few decades, has been announced for several years, but has not yet found its way into print. For now, researchers must supplement the materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in the excavation reports of Marshall (1931), Mackay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), or reproductions in more recent scattered sources. The term Indus Script refers to short strings of symbols associated with the Harappan civilization of ancient India (most of the Indus sites are distributed in present day North West India and Pakistan) used between 26001900 BC, which evolved from an earlier form of the Indus script attested from around 3300 BC. They are most commonly associated with flat, rectangular stone tablets called seals, but they are also found on at least a dozen other materials. The first publication of a Harappan seal dates to 1875, in the form of a drawing by Alexander Cunningham. Since then, well over 4000 symbol-bearing objects have been discovered, some as far afield as Mesopotamia. After 1900 BC, use of the symbols ends, together with the final stage of Harappan civilization. Some early scholars, starting with Cunningham in 1877, thought that the script was the archetype of the Brahmi script used by Ashoka. Today Cunninghams claims are rejected by nearly all researchers, but a minority of mostly Indian scholars continues to argue for the Indus script as the predecessor of the Brahmic family. There are over 400 different signs, but many are thought to be slight modifications or combinations of perhaps 200 basic signs. Houses were one or two stories high, made of baked brick, with flat roofs, and were just about identical. Each was built around a courtyard, with windows overlooking the courtyard. The outside walls had no windows. Each home had its own private drinking well and its own private bathroom. Clay pipes led from the bathrooms to sewers located under the streets. These sewers drained into nearly rivers and streams. Harappan cities did not develop slowly, which suggests that whoever built these cities learned to do so in another place. As the Indus flooded, cities were rebuilt on top of each other. Archaeologists have discovered several different cities, one built over the other, each built a little less skillfully. The most skillful was on bottom. It would appear that builders grew less able or less interested in perfection over time. Still, each city is a marvel, and each greatly advanced for its time. Their towns were laid out in grids everywhere (straight streets, well built homes) These people were incredible builders. Scientists have found what they think are giant reservoirs for fresh water. They have also found that even the smallest house at the edge of each town was linked to that towns central drainage system. (Is it possible that they not only drained waste water out, but also had a system to pump fresh water into their homes, similar to modern plumbing. Men and women dressed in colorful robes. Women wore jewelry of gold and precious stone, and even wore lipstick Among the treasures found was a statue of a women wearing a bracelet. (Bracelets with similar designs are worn today in India.) Clothing was for the most part, similar for both men and women. The basic costume of ancient society was a length of cloth wrapped around the lower part of the body, and a loose fitting garment for the upper body, which was usually another length of fabric. A headdress was also worn, mainly by the men. Women in Vedic society wore a variety of garments. The first being a skirt type garment (dhoti), with a blouse (choli) and scarf. Second is a sari, which is a length of fabric wound around the body with the loose end (pallu) thrown over the shoulder. Sometimes a choli would be worn with this. The last garmen t was worn mainly by tribal women. The Adivasi is a length of fabric tied around the waist with no upper garment worn. Men also had a choice in their clothing though not as varied as the women. Men usually wore a Dhoti, which is a length of fabric wrapped around the waist. This could be left as a skirt or brought through the legs and made into a pants type garment. Men of the south rarely wore shirts, but men of the north wore a fitted upper garment. Male headdress was also a length of fabric, wrapped around the head, called a Turban. Women sometimes wore the turban also. Due to the large area of India many differences in clothing emerged, mainly due to climate differences. The southern Indians wore much less than in the colder north. Women in the south rarely wore a upper garment. Northern women adopted a fitted upper garment to be worn under the loose fitting one. Clothing was made from resources found in each region. Cotton and wool were the most abundant, since silk was not introduced from China until around the 1st century B. C.E. People also enjoyed lavish embroidery and embellishments. Gold being the preferred, though there was also an abundance of silver and precious gems. Entertainment A beautiful small bronze statue of a dancer was found, which tells us that they enjoyed dance and had great skill working with metals. In the ancient city of Mohenjo-daro, scientists have found the remains of a large central pool, with steps leading down at both ends. This could have been a public swimming pool, or perhaps have been used for religious ceremonies. Around this large central pool were smaller rooms, that might have dressing rooms, and smaller pools that might have been private baths. Some of the toys found were small carts, whistles shaped like birds, and toy monkeys which could slide down a string. Musical instruments include the Sarangi, Sitar, Tabla, Tambora, and Tanpura. Since Vedic times, Indians had been required to correctly recite, the Vedas. The correctness in recitation was very important as the Vedas were, in those days, transmitted through memory (Smriti) and were learned through hearing (Shruti). This kind of an emphasis on recitation the correct pronunciation lead to studies in phonetics and sound manipulation. This was the birthplace of Indian Musical Raga (metre) and Swaras (rhymes). That Music in ancient India was given considerable recognition is illustrated by the fact that Saraswati, the Indian goddess of learning is shown to be holding a musical instrument (Veena) in her hand. Traditionally, vocal music in India has tended to be devotional music (Bhakti-geet), and temples have been places where musicians used to practice music to please the deity and the devotees. Indian vocal music is broadly divided into two schools - the Hindustani or north Indian school and the Carnatic or South Indian school. As far as instrumental music goes there is a general identity of instruments that have been used. The main Indian musical instruments are the Sarod, the Veena, the Sarangi, the Tambora, the Harmonium, the Ghata, the Tabla, the Tanpura, the Satar, etc. As compared to art and architecture Indian music has had less impact on the outside world. This was so as most of Indian musical instruments require specialized material and craftsmanship for their manufacture. And in the absence of transmission of these skills and the absence of trade in musical instruments, Along with the necessity of long and arduous practice which was required to master these instruments, made the transmission of music a difficult task. However, as far as, devotional vocal music goes, Indian musical traditions did travel to the countries of South east Asia. The instrumental and vocal music of Korea has many elements of Indian music, which it received along with the Buddhist invocative and devotional songs and slokas (religious couplets). Along with Buddhism, some Indian musical instruments like the flute (bansi), temples bell (Ghanta), etc. went to the countries of south-east Asia. Even Europe owes certain instruments to India. Two popular European musical instruments namely the flute and violin are believed to be of Indian origin. Though we do not know about the process of transmission of these instruments, however in India the flute (bansi) and the violin (a variant of the Veena) are definitely indigenously Indian. A pointer to the fact that these instruments have been in usage in India since a very long time is that the bansi is associated with Sri Krishna and the Veena with the goddess Saraswati. This apart, in modern times the western musical instruments like the Tambourin and the Tambour are adaptations of the Indian Tambora and Tanpura. The names Tambourin and Tambour are also derived from the word Tambora. The Saralngi, another Indian musical instrument has also found its place in western music. The acceptance of these musical instruments in the west is also evident from the fact that the words Tambora, Sarangi and Tabla are mentioned in the Oxford Dictionary. Art and Culture Ancient Indias fine art and performing arts attest to this fact. This find expression in music, musical instruments, dancing, paintings and several other art forms. Music had a divine character in India and in recognition of that the Indian Goddess of learning, Saraswati is always shown holding a musical instrument, namely, the veena. Likewise, Krishna is associated with banshi, that is, the flute - a musical instrument, which traveled throughout the world from India. Indian devotional songs and reciting influenced religious recitations in several eastern countries, where the style was adopted by Buddhists monks. The India developed several types of musical instruments and forms of dancing, with delicate body movements and grace. Paintings have remained the oldest art form as found in several cave paintings across the globe. In India also, in places like Bhimbetka, a UNESCO declared world heritage site, pre-historic cave paintings have been discovered. In relatively recent times, paintings and carvings on rock had significantly developed, and many such rock carvings have been found dating to the period of the emperor Ashoka. Indian influences may be seen in paintings at Bamiyan, Afghanistan, and in Miran and Domko in Central Asia. Sometimes, such paintings depict not only Buddha but Hindu deities such as Shiva, Ganesha and Surya. Ancient India had marvelous craftsmen, skilled in pottery, weaving, and metal working. Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, steatite have been found at the excavation sites. The pottery that has been found is of very high quality, with unusually beautiful designs. Several small figures of animals, such as monkeys, have been found. These small figures could be objects of art or toys. There are also small statues of what they think are female gods. They found bowls made of bronze and silver, and many beads and ornaments. The metals used to make these things are not found in the Indus Valley. So, either the people who lived in this ancient civilization had to import all of these items from some other place, or more probably, had to import the metals they used to make these beautiful things from somewhere else. A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at Lothal indicate the use of stringed musical instruments. Seals have been found at Mohenjo-daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and one sitting cross-legged perhaps the earliest indication, at least illustration, of the practice of yoga. A horned figure in a meditation pose has been interpreted as one of the earliest depictions of the god Shiva. The very first works of visual art created in the Indian sub-continent were primitive cave or rock paintings. Many are assumed to exist, but the largest number of discoveries are in Central India, on sandstone rock shelters within a hundred mile radius around Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh. these paintings are dated at around 5500 B. C. i. e. they are 1500 years old. Some of these paintings have been overlaid with later paintings and graffiti. The paintings generally depict animals, in scenes such as hunting. Human figures are also shown with bows and arrows, and swords and shields. The colors used An intricately carved pillar at Ellora in Maharashtra dating back to the 7th century. are made up of natural minerals and are in various shades of red and orange. These paintings are the forerunners of the frescos of a later age which are seen at Ajanta, Ellora and elsewhere in India. But unfortunately no well preserved art remains, to document the period between the coming of the Aryans i. e. 1500 B. C. to about the time of Buddha i. e. 550 B. C. We are told by the literary sources that the art of painting was practiced. In the Buddhist texts, elaborate palaces of kings and houses of the wealthy are described as being embellished with wall paintings. But actual evidence about this art is lost. How this art could have been, can be guessed from the paintings on stone surfaces found at Ajanta and Ellora which are said to have been done in around 400 A. D. These paintings at Ajanta and Ellora depict Buddhist tales from the Jatakas. Though the paintings are today 1500 years old, the paint has not only retained its color but also much of its luster. The technique of painting has been thus described by a student of Indian Art. The surface of the stone was first prepared by a coating of potters clay, mixed variously with cow dung, straw, and animal hair. Once this was leveled to a thickness of half an inch to two inches, it was coated with a smooth fine white lime plaster which became the actual painting surface. On the still-damp wall, the artist first laid out his composition with a red cinnabar line and then defined the subjects with an undercoat of grey or terre verte. This was followed by the addition of local colors, and once the whole wall was completely colored, a brown or black line restated the drawing to finish the composition. A last burnishing with a smooth stone gave it a rich lustrous surface. The colors which were natural and water soluble, consisted of purple, browns, yellow, blue, white, green, reds and black. Thus it is evident that the technique of painting had developed to an advanced level This monumental bull was carved in marble in the 3rd century B. C. It stood on a column built by Emperor Ashoka, which was inscribed with Buddhist edicts. of sophistication due which the paintings could survive for 1500 years. Though the colors used are supposed to have been derived from minerals and vegetables they had been treated to last long. The above description also illustrates how, complicated procedures of preparing the surface to be painted had evolved in India. This technique of painting had also spread to central Asia and South-east Asia. Some strains of Indian painting can even be identified in western church paintings and mosaics. Indian influence is clearly evident in the paintings at Bamiyan in Afghanistan and in Miran and Domko in Central Asia. Not only do these paintings depict the Buddha but also Hindu deities such as Shiva, Ganesha and Surya. The mention of the word dance conjures up images of Nataraja - Lord of Dance - as the Indian God Shiva is portrayed. Apart from Shiva even Ganesha and Srikrishna are associated with dance and music. India has many classical dance styles. The oldest text dealing with aesthetics covering various art forms including dance is the Natyashastra which is authored by Bharatamuni. All the Indian classical dance styles viz. Bharata Natyam, Kuchipudi, Kathak, Odissi, Mohiniattam, Kathakali, Manipuri, etc. are derived from the Natyashastra. Some of these dance styles have evolved from folk dances and are intimately connected with the art of story telling. Most of these stories are drawn from our epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, tales from collections like the Panchatantra, Hitopadesha, Katha Sarit Sagara, etc. also from the subject matter of these dance styles. In fact the Kathak and Kathakali from U. P. and Kerala respectively, derive their names from the term Katha which in Sanskrit means a story. As the story is told in the form of dance, these dance styles can actually be called dance-dramas, the only difference is the absence of dialogues. The Charkul dance-drama of Central India revolves around a story generally from the Indian epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Similar traditions of dance-dramas are prevalent in other parts of India too. In Maharashtra, you have the Dashavatara, in Karnataka you have the Yakshagana The Kathak dance of North India and the kthaali dance of Kerala also originated as dance dramas and derive their names from the Sanskrit work Katha which means a story. The story has to be told solely through actions and hence an elaborate pattern of facial expressions (Mudra), movement of hands (Hasta) and the simulation of various moods like anger (Krodha), envy (Matsara), greed (Lobha), lust (Kama), ego (Mada), etc. have been evolved. The mastery of perfect expression of these feelings by subtle movement of the lips and eyes forms the root of all the classical Indian dance styles. In fact the combination of the three qualities viz. expression, rhyme and rhythm i. e. Bhava, Raga, and Tala go into the determination of the term Bha-Ra-Ta, which is used as the name of one dance style viz. Bharata Natyam. The integration of Indian classical dance with the physical exercises of Yoga and the breath control of Pranayam has perfected the dance styles. Yoga especially had given the dance styles an excellent footwork which is called Padanyasa and Padalalitya. Another feature of these dance styles is that they are integrated with theology and worship. Traditionally these dances were patronized by the temples. During festivals and other religious occasions, these dances were performed in the temple premises to propitiate the deity. Thus the dance came to combine both art and worship. Even today every recital of any Indian classical dance begins with an invocation to Nataraja or Nateshwara the god of dance. In Indian folklore and legend, the God of Dance is himself shown to be dancing in a form called the Tandava. This has also been depicted in the statues and carvings in temples like, Khajuraho and Konark in Northern India, and at Chidambaram, Madurai, Rameshwaram, etc. in the South. Indian dances have also evolved styles based on the Tandava like the Urdhra Tandava, Sandhya Tandava, etc. Indian classical dance found its way outside India, especially to the countries of Southeast Asia. The dance styles of Thailand, Indonesia, Burma, etc. have so heavily borrowed from the Indian classical dance traditions that to a casual observer there would seem to be hardly any difference between the two. While Western dance has not directly borrowed anything from Indian classical dance, it has borrowed from Indian folk dance through the medium of the Gypsies. The Gypsies as has been established today, migrated from India to the west many centuries ago. The Gypsies speak a language called Romany which has many common words with Indian languages. The religion of the Gypsies is a modified form of early Hinduism. The Gypsies seem to have been the Banjar nomads who are still found in India. Being a very carefree nomadic community the Gypsies earned their living by giving performance of folk dances, along with the pursuing of other nomadic activities. Gypsy dance has influenced western dance styles like the Waltz and the foxtrot. Even the American Break dance and other dances associated with jazz music have borrowed elements from the gypsy folk dance. The Gypsy folk dance, is itself a free flowing and care free dance, a modified version of which is found in the folk dances of many Adivasi and nomadic tribal communities in India. The origin of the Indian theatre or rather folk theatre and dramatics can be traced to religious ritualism of the Vedic Aryans. This folk theatre of the misty past was mixed with dance, ritualism, plus a depiction of events from daily life. It was the last element which made it the origin of the classical theatre of later times. Many historians, notably D. D. Kosambi, Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, Adya Rangacharaya, etc. have referred to the prevalence of ritualism amongst Aryan tribes in which some members of the tribe acted as if they were wild animals and some others were the hunters. Those who acted as animals like goats, buffaloes, reindeer, monkeys, etc. were chased by those playing the role of hunters and a mock hunt was enacted. In such a simple and crude manner did the theatre originate in India nearly 4000 years back in the tribal Aryans of Rig Vedic times. There also must have existed a theatrical tradition in the Indus valley cities, but of this we have no literary numismatic or any other material proof. The origin of drama and the theatre has been told to us in an aptly dramatic manner by Bharatamui, the author of Natyashastra an ancient Indian text on dance and drama. Bharatamuni is said to have lived around the 4th century but even he is not aware of the actual origin of the theatre in India. He has cleverly stated in a dramatic manner that it was the lord of creation Brahma who also created the original Natyashastra (Drama). According to Bharatamuni, since the lord Brahma created the entire universe we need not question his ability in creating dramas. But Bharatamuni goes on to tell us that the original Natyashastra of Brahma was too unwieldy and obscure to be of any practical use. Hence, Bharatamuni, himself took up the task of making Natyashastra simple, intelligible and interesting. Thus the Natyashastra of Bharatamuni was supported to be understood by lay people. So the Natyashastra of Bharatamunii is not the oldest text on dance and drama, as Bharata himself says that he has only simplified the original work of lord Brahma. The Natyashastra assumes the existence of many plays before it was composed, and says that most of the early plays did not follow the rules set down in the Natyashastra. But the Natyashastra itself seems to be the first attempt to develop the technique or rather art, of drama in a systematic manner. The Natya Shastra a tells us not only what is to be portrayed in a drama, but how the portrayal is to be done. Drama, as Bharatamuni says, is the imitation of men and their doings (loka-vritti). As men and their doings have to be respected on the stage, so drama in Sanskrit is also known by the term roopaka which means portrayal. According to the Natyashastra all the modes of expression employed by an individual viz. speech, gestures, movements and intonation must be used. The representation of these expressions can have different modes (vritti) according to the predominance and emphasis on one mode or another. Bharatamuni recognizes four main modes viz. Speech and Poetry (Bharati Vritti), Dance and Music (Kaishiki Vritti), Action (Arabhatti Vritti) and Emotions (Sattvatti Vritti). Bharatamuni also specifies where and how a play is to be performed. In ancient India plays were generally performed either in temple-yard or within palace precincts. During public performances, plays were generally performed in the open. For such public performances, Bharatamuni has advocated the construction of a mandapa. According to the Natyashastra in the construction of a mandapa, pillars must be set up in four corners. With the help of these pillars a platform is built of wooden planks. The area of the mandapa is divided into two parts. The front part, which is the back stage is called the r angashrishu. Behind the ranga-shirsha is what was called the nepathya-griha, where the characters dress up before entering the stage. Bharatamuni has also specified that every play should have a Sutradhara which literally means holder of a string. The Sutradhara was like the producer-director of today. Every play had to begin with an innovation of God. This invocation was called the poorvaranga. Even today, plays in Indian languages begin with a devotional song called Naandi. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata can be called the first recognized plays that originated in India. These epics also provided the inspiration to the earliest Indian dramatists and they do even today. One of the earliest Indian dramatists was Bhasa whose plays have been inspired by the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Bhasas date cannot be definitely ascertained, but that he lived before Kalidasa is proved by the latters reference to Bhasa as one of the early leading playwrights. As Kalidasa lived in the 4th century, Bhasa should have lived in the early centuries of our era. Bhasa was a natural dramatist who drew heavily from the epics, but Kalidasa can be called an original playwright. Kalidasa has written many plays, some of which are AbhijananShakuntalam, Kumarsambhavam, Meghadutam and Malavikagnimitram. Kalidasa was the court playwright at the Gupta court. He lived at Ujjaini, the capital of the Guptas and was for some days the Gupta ambassador at the court of the Vakatakas at Amaravati where he wrote the play Meghadutam. The next great Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti. He is said to have written the following three plays viz. Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita. Among these three, the last two cover between them the entire epic, Ramayana. Bhavabhuti lived around the 7th century A. D. when Sanskrit drama was on its decline, mainly due to the lack of royal patronage. The last royal patron of Sanskrit drama seems to be king Harshavardhana of the 7th century. Harshavardhana is himself credited with having written three plays viz. Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda. But nevertheless despite lack of patronage two more leading playwrights came after Bhavabhuti, they were Shudraka whose main play was the Mricchakatikam, and the second dramatist was Rajashekhara whose play was titled Karpuramanjari. But the decline of Sanskrit theatre is evident from the fact that while Mricchakatikam was in Sanskrit, the Karpuramanjari was in Prakrit which was a colloquial form of Sanskrit. Rajashekhara has himself said that he chose to write in Prakrit as the language was soft while Sanskrit was harsh. Sanskrit plays continued to be written up to the 17th century in distant pockets of the country, mainly in the Vijayanagara empire of the South. But they had passed their prime, the later Sanskrit dramas are mostly imitations of Kalidasa or Bhavabhuti. As in the case of the other fine arts, the Indian theatre has left its mark on the countries of South-east Asia. In Thailand, especially it has been a tradition from the middle ages to stage plays based on plots drawn from Indian epics. This had been so even in Cambodia where, at the ancient capital Angkor Wat, stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata have been carved on the walls of temples and palaces. Similar, bas reliefs are found at Borobudur in Indonesia. Thus, the Indian theatre has been one of the vehicles of enriching the culture of our neighboring countries since ancient times. Epic Poetry Indian epic poetry is the epic poetry written on the Indian sub-continent. Written in Sanskrit, Tamil and Hindi, it includes some of the oldest epic poetry ever created and some works form the basis of Hindu scripture. The ancient Sanskrit epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, occasionally termed Mahakavya (Great Compositions), refer to epic poems that form a canon of Hindu scripture. Indeed, the epic form prevailed and verse was and remained until very recently the preferred form of Hindu literary works. Hero-worship was and is a central aspect of Indian culture, and thus readily lent itself to a literary tradition that abounded in epic poetry and literature. The Puranas, a massive collection of verse-form histories of Indias many Hindu gods and goddesses, followed in this tradition. The post-sangam period (2nd century-6th century) saw many great Tamil epics being written, including Cilappatikaram (or Silappadhikaram), Manimegalai, Jeevaga-chintamani, Valayapati and Kundalakesi. Later, during the Chola period, Kamban (12th century) wrote what is considered one of the greatest Tamil epics - the Kamba ramayanam of Kamban, based on the Ramayana. The post-sangam period (2nd century-6th century) saw many great Tamil epics being written, including Cilappatikaram (or Silappadhikaram), Manimegalai, Jeevaga-chintamani, Valayapati and Kundalakesi. Later, during the Chola period, Kamban (12th century) wrote what is considered one of the greatest Tamil epics - the Kamba ramayanam of Kamban, based on the Ramayana. The first epic to appear in Hindi was Tulsidas (1543-1623) Ramacharitamanasa, also based on the Ramayana. It is considered a great classic of Hindi epic poetry and literature, and shows the author Tulsidas in complete command over all the important styles of composition - narrative, epic, lyrical and dialectic. He has given a human character to Rama, the Hindu avatar of Vishnu, potraying him as an ideal son, husband, brother and king. Sports and Games Decline, Collapse and Legacy Around 1900 BCE, signs of a gradual decline begin to emerge. People started to leave the cities. Those who remained were poorly nourished. By around 1800 BC, most of the cities were abandoned. By around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. In 1953, Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed that the decline of the Indus Civilization was caused by the invasion of an Indo-European tribe from Central Asia called the Aryans. As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons found in various parts of Mohenjo-Daro, and passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts. However, scholars soon started to reject Wheelers theory, since the skeletons belonged to a period after the citys abandonment and none were found near the citadel. Subsequent examinations of the skeletons by Kenneth Kennedy in 1994 showed that the marks on the skulls were caused by erosion, and not violent aggression. Today, many scholars believe that the collapse of the Indus Civilization was caused by drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia. It has also been suggested that immigration by new peoples, deforestation, floods, or changes in the course of the river may have contributed to the collapse of the IVC. Previously, it was also believed that the decline of the Harappan civilization led to an interruption of urban life in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley Civilization did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus Civilization can be found in later cultures. Current archaeological data suggest that material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000-900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture. Harvard archaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late Harappan settlement of Pirak, which thrived continuously from 1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great in 325 BCE. Recent archaeological excavations indicate that the decline of Harappa drove people eastward. After 1900 BCE, the number of sites in India increased from 218 to 853. Excavations in the Gangetic plain show that urban settlement began around 1200 BCE, only a few centuries after the decline of Harappa and much earlier than previously expected. Archaeologists have emphasized that, just as in most areas of the world, there was a continuous series of cultural developments. These link the so-called two major phases of urbanization in South Asia. A possible natural reason for the IVCs decline is connected with climate change that is also signaled for the neighboring areas of the Middle East: The Indus valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system. A tectonic event may have diverted the systems sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is complete uncertainty about the date of this event, as most settlements inside Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have not yet been dated. The actual reason for decline might be any combination of these factors. New geological research is now being conducted by a group led by Peter Clift, from the University of Aberdeen, to investigate how the courses of rivers have changed in this region since 8000 years ago, to test whether climate or river reorganizations are responsible for the decline of the Harappan. A 2004 paper indicated that the isotopes of the Ghaggar-Hakra system do not come from the Himalayan glaciers, and were rain-fed instead, contradicting a Harappan time mighty Sarasvati river. A research team led by the geologist Liviu Giosan of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution also concluded that climate change in form of the easterward migration of the monsoons led to the decline of the IVC.77 The teams findings were published in PNAS in May 2012. According to their theory, the slow eastward migration of the monsoons across Asia initially allowed the civilization to develop. The monsoon-supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the development of cities. The IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons. As the monsoons kept shifting eastward, the water supply for the agricultural activities dried up. The residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out. In the aftermath of the Indus Civilizations collapse, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus Civilization. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre Colored Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for cremation a practice dominant in Hinduism today. Historical Context and Linguistic Affiliation The Indus Vally Civilization has been tentatively identified with the toponym Meluhha known from Sumerian records. It has been compared in particular with the civilizations of Elam (also in the context of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis) and with Minoan Crete (because of isolated cultural parallels such as the ubiquitous goddess worship and depictions of bull-leaping). The mature (Harappan) phase of the IVC is contemporary to the Early to Middle Bronze Age in the Ancient Near East, in particular the Old Elamite period, Early Dynastic to Ur III Mesopotamia, Prepalatial Minoan Crete and Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period Egypt. After the discovery of the IVC in the 1920s, it was immediately associated with the indigenous Dasyu inimical to the Rigvedic tribes in numerous hymns of the Rigveda. Mortimer Wheeler interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-Daro as the victims of a warlike conquest, and famously stated that Indra stands accused of the destruction of the IVC. The association of the IVC with the city-dwelling Dasyus remains alluring because the assumed timeframe of the first Indo-Aryan migration into India corresponds neatly with the period of decline of the IVC seen in the archaeological record. The discovery of the advanced, urban IVC however changed the 19th-century view of early Indo-Aryan migration as an invasion of an advanced culture at the expense of a primitive aboriginal population to a gradual acculturation of nomadic barbarians on an advanced urban civilization, comparable to the Germanic migrations after the Fall of Rome, or the Kassite invasion of Babylonia. This move away from simplistic invasionist scenarios parallels similar developments in thinking about language transfer and population movement in general, such as in the case of the migration of the proto-Greek speakers into Greece, or the Indo-Europeanization of Western Europe. It was often suggested that the bearers of the IVC corresponded to proto-Dravidians linguistically, the breakup of proto-Dravidian corresponding to the breakup of the Late Harappan culture. Today, the Dravidian language family is concentrated mostly in southern India and northern and eastern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahui language), which lends credence to the theory. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. However, in an interview with the Deccan Herald on 12 August 2012, Asko Parpola clarified his position by admitting that Sanskrit-speakers had contributed to the Indus Valley Civilization. Proto-Munda (or Para-Munda) and a lost phylum (perhaps related or ancestral to the Nihali language) have been proposed as other candidates. The civilization is sometimes referred to as the Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilization or Indus-Sarasvati civilization by Hindutva groups. or the Indus-Sarasvati civilization.8a. Early Civilization in the Indus Valley Aryans probably used the Khyber Pass to cross the mountains during their Indian invasion. Located in present day Pakistan, the pass is about 16 yards wide at its narrowest point. The phrase early civilizations usually conjures up images of Egypt and Mesopotamia, and their pyramids, mummies, and golden tombs. But in the 1920s, a huge discovery in South Asia proved that Egypt and Mesopotamia were not the only early civilizations. In the vast Indus River plains (located in what is today Pakistan and western India), under layers of land and mounds of dirt, archaeologists discovered the remains of a 4,600 year-old city. A thriving, urban civilization had existed at the same time as Egyptian and Mesopotamian states mdash in an area twice each of their sizes. The people of this Indus Valley civilization did not build massive monuments like their contemporaries, nor did they bury riches among their dead in golden tombs. There were no mummies, no emperors, and no violent wars or bloody battles in their territory. Remarkably, the lack of all these is what makes the Indus Valley civilization so exciting and unique. While others civilizations were devoting huge amounts of time and resources to the rich, the supernatural, and the dead, Indus Valley inhabitants were taking a practical approach to supporting the common, secular, living people. Sure, they believed in an afterlife and employed a system of social divisions. But they also believed resources were more valuable in circulation among the living than on display or buried underground. Copyright J. M. Kenoyerharappa The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is the earliest known public water tank of the ancient world. Most scholars believe that this tank would have been used in conjunction with religious ceremonies. Amazingly, the Indus Valley civilization appears to have been a peaceful one. Very few weapons have been found and no evidence of an army has been discovered. Excavated human bones reveal no signs of violence, and building remains show no indication of battle. All evidence points to a preference for peace and success in achieving it. So how did such a practical and peaceful civilization become so successful The Twin Cities Photo courtesy of Carolyn Brown Heinz Seals such as these were used by merchants in the Harappan civilization. Many experts believe that they signified names. The ruins of two ancient cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (both in modern-day Pakistan), and the remnants of many other settlements, have revealed great clues to this mystery. Harappa was, in fact, such a rich discovery that the Indus Valley Civilization is also called the Harappan civilization. The first artifact uncovered in Harappa was a unique stone seal carved with a unicorn and an inscription. Similar seals with different animal symbols and writings have since been found throughout the region. Although the writing has not yet been deciphered, the evidence suggests they belonged to the same language system. Apparently, Mesopotamias cuneiform system had some competition in the race for the worlds first script. The discovery of the seals prompted archaeologists to dig further. Amazing urban architecture was soon uncovered across the valley and into the western plains. The findings clearly show that Harappan societies were well organized and very sanitary. This copy of the Rig Veda was written after the Vedic Age. The Aryans had no form of writing at the time they invaded India. Instead, these religious scripts would have been memorized and passed down orally by Brahman priests. For protection from seasonal floods and polluted waters, the settlements were built on giant platforms and elevated grounds. Upon these foundations, networks of streets were laid out in neat patterns of straight lines and right angles. The buildings along the roads were all constructed of bricks that were uniform in size. The brick houses of all city dwellers were equipped with bathing areas supplied with water from neighborhood wells. Sophisticated drainage systems throughout the city carried dirty water and sewage outside of living spaces. Even the smallest houses on the edges of the towns were connected to the systems mdash cleanliness was obviously of utmost importance. The Fall of Harappan Culture No doubt, these cities were engineering masterpieces of their time. The remains of their walls yield clues about the culture that thrived in the Indus Valley. Clay figurines of goddesses, for example, are proof that religion was important. Toys and games show that even in 3000 B. C.E. kids mdash and maybe even adults mdash liked to play. Pottery, textiles, and beads are evidence of skilled craftsmanship and thriving trade. The swastika was a sacred symbol for the Aryans signifying prosperity. The word comes from the Sanskrit for good fortune. Hitler borrowed the symbol, changed the angle and direction of the arms, and used it to represent the Nazis. It was this intensive devotion to craftsmanship and trade that allowed the Harappan culture to spread widely and prosper greatly. Each time goods were traded or neighbors entered the gates of the cities to barter, Indus culture was spread. Eventually, though, around 1900 B. C.E, this prosperity came to an end. The integrated cultural network collapsed, and the civilization became fragmented into smaller regional cultures. Trade, writing, and seals all but disappeared from the area. Many believe that the decline of the Harappan civilization was a result of Aryan invasions from the north. This theory seems logical because the Aryans came to power in the Ganges Valley shortly after the Indus demise of the Indus Valley Civilization. Because there is little evidence of any type of invasion though, numerous historians claim that it was an environmental disaster that led to the civilizations demise. They argue that changing river patterns disrupted the farming and trading systems and eventually led to irreparable flooding. Although the intricate details of the early Indus Valley culture might never be fully known, many pieces of the ancient puzzle have been discovered. The remains of the Indus Valley cities continue to be unearthed and interpreted today. With each new artifact, the history of early Indian civilization is strengthened and the legacy of this ingenious and diverse metropolis is made richer. The Ancient Indus Valley Everything you could want to know about the largest and least known area of the ancient world. Compiled by their Assistant Field Director, the Harappa Archaeological Research Project (HARP) is full of graphics and guided tours around the ruins of Indus Valley civilization. Slide shows, biographies of the first explorers, and interviews with top scholars round out this easily navigable website. Some features require Quicktime and RealAudio plugins. A Unicorn Seal Tommy Hilfigers tags are red, white, and blue. Nike shoes are emblazoned with the trademark swoosh. See here how the manufacturers of the early Indus Valley made their products known. The Ancient Indus Valley Civilization Architecture, engineering, the arts, and sciences: these were only a few of the areas in which the Harappan civilization was accomplished. This intense paper from the Ancient Civilizations website gives us an in-depth look at what life entailed for ancient Harappans, from sewers to music. Women and the Vedic Chant Lopamudra was a great sage who inspired fear among peers and awe among elders. She also happened to be a woman. Read about the state of women in the Vedic Age before they fell from power as men took control. Learn from this Suite 101 article how these ancient women influence Indian women today. The Indus Valley Civilization The Aryans It could be possible that the Aryans never actually invaded India. Instead, Europeans may have made up the whole theory to divide the Indian people. Is the Aryan Invasion Theory the only explanation for the historical evidence Take a look at this table provided by Greenhead College, which gives the basics and the historical evidence for each theory that explains the relationship between the Dravidians and the Aryans. The Aryans and the Vedic Age When the Aryans arrived in India, they brought with them the horse, Sanskrit (the basis of the Hindi language) and the basis of Hinduism. They also brought war as well as the caste system, and erased all traces of the writing system of the Harappan civilization. The dedicated students at Thinkquest argue the pros and cons of the Aryan invasion into India. The Vedic Age They came through the Khyber Pass with their cattle and culture, transplanting a civilization in the process. Read at this India Visit website about the Aryans and the Vedic Age. Learn about the grand epics they wrote and the contributions that they made to the India of today.
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